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[TOC]
Structs
A struct, short for structure, is a custom data type that lets us name and
package together multiple related values that make up a meaningful group. If
you come from an object-oriented language, a struct is like an object’s data
attributes. In the next section of this chapter, we’ll talk about how to define
methods on our structs; methods are how you specify the behavior that goes
along with a struct’s data. The struct and enum (that we will talk about in
Chapter 6) concepts are the building blocks for creating new types in your
program’s domain in order to take full advantage of Rust’s compile-time type
checking.
One way of thinking about structs is that they are similar to tuples, which we talked about in Chapter 3. Like tuples, the pieces of a struct can be different types. Unlike tuples, we name each piece of data so that it’s clearer what the values mean. Structs are more flexible as a result of these names: we don’t have to rely on the order of the data to specify or access the values of an instance.
To define a struct, we enter the keyword struct and give the whole struct a
name. A struct’s name should describe what the significance is of these pieces
of data being grouped together. Then, inside curly braces, we define the names
of the pieces of data, which we call fields, and specify each field’s type.
For example, Listing 5-1 shows a struct to store information about a user
account:
struct User {
username: String,
email: String,
sign_in_count: u64,
active: bool,
}
To use a struct once we've defined it, we create an instance of that struct
by specifying concrete values for each of the fields. Creating an instance is
done by stating the name of the struct, then curly braces with key: value
pairs inside it where the keys are the names of the fields and the values are
the data we want to store in those fields. The fields don’t have to be
specified in the same order in which the struct declared them. In other words,
the struct definition is like a general template for the type, and instances
fill in that template with particular data to create values of the type. For
example, we can declare a particular user like this:
let user1 = User {
email: String::from("someone@example.com"),
username: String::from("someusername123"),
active: true,
sign_in_count: 1,
};
To get a particular value out of a struct, we can use dot notation. If we
wanted just this user’s email address, we can say user1.email.
Ownership of Struct Data
In the User struct definition in Listing 5-1, we used the owned String type
rather than the &str string slice type. This is a deliberate choice because
we want instances of this struct to own all of its data, and for that data to
be valid for as long as the entire struct is valid.
It is possible for structs to store references to data owned by something else, but to do so requires the use of lifetimes, a feature of Rust that we'll discuss in Chapter 10. Lifetimes ensure that the data a struct references is valid for as long as the struct is. If you try to store a reference in a struct without specifying lifetimes, like this:
Filename: src/main.rs
struct User {
username: &str,
email: &str,
sign_in_count: u64,
active: bool,
}
fn main() {
let user1 = User {
email: "someone@example.com",
username: "someusername123",
active: true,
sign_in_count: 1,
};
}
The compiler will complain that it needs lifetime specifiers:
error[E0106]: missing lifetime specifier
-->
|
2 | username: &str,
| ^ expected lifetime parameter
error[E0106]: missing lifetime specifier
-->
|
3 | email: &str,
| ^ expected lifetime parameter
We will talk about how to fix these errors in order to store references in
structs in Chapter 10, but for now, fix errors like these by switching to owned
types like String instead of references like &str.
An Example Program
To understand when we might want to use structs, let’s write a program that calculates the area of a rectangle. We’ll start off with single variables, then refactor our program until we’re using structs instead.
Let’s make a new binary project with Cargo called rectangles that will take the length and width of a rectangle specified in pixels and will calculate the area of the rectangle. Listing 5-2 has a short program with one way of doing just that in our project’s src/main.rs:
Filename: src/main.rs
fn main() {
let length1 = 50;
let width1 = 30;
println!(
"The area of the rectangle is {} square pixels.",
area(length1, width1)
);
}
fn area(length: u32, width: u32) -> u32 {
length * width
}
Let’s try running this program with cargo run:
The area of the rectangle is 1500 square pixels.
Refactoring with Tuples
Our little program works okay; it figures out the area of the rectangle by
calling the area function with each dimension. But we can do better. The
length and the width are related to each other since together they describe one
rectangle.
The issue with this method is evident in the signature of area:
fn area(length: u32, width: u32) -> u32 {
The area function is supposed to calculate the area of one rectangle, but our
function takes two arguments. The arguments are related, but that’s not
expressed anywhere in our program itself. It would be more readable and more
manageable to group length and width together.
We’ve already discussed one way we might do that in Chapter 3: tuples. Listing 5-3 has a version of our program which uses tuples:
Filename: src/main.rs
fn main() {
let rect1 = (50, 30);
println!(
"The area of the rectangle is {} square pixels.",
area(rect1)
);
}
fn area(dimensions: (u32, u32)) -> u32 {
dimensions.0 * dimensions.1
}
In one way, this is a little better. Tuples let us add a bit of structure, and we’re now passing just one argument. But in another way this method less clear: tuples don’t give names to their elements, so our calculation has gotten more confusing because we have to index into the parts of the tuple:
dimensions.0 * dimensions.1
It doesn’t matter if we mix up length and width for the area calculation, but
if we were to draw the rectangle on the screen it would matter! We would have
to remember that length was the tuple index 0 and width was the tuple
index 1. If someone else was to work on this code, they would have to figure
this out and remember it as well. It would be easy to forget or mix these
values up and cause errors, since we haven’t conveyed the meaning of our data
in our code.
Refactoring with Structs: Adding More Meaning
Here is where we bring in structs. We can transform our tuple into a data type with a name for the whole as well as names for the parts, as shown in Listing 5-4:
Filename: src/main.rs
struct Rectangle {
length: u32,
width: u32,
}
fn main() {
let rect1 = Rectangle { length: 50, width: 30 };
println!(
"The area of the rectangle is {} square pixels.",
area(&rect1)
);
}
fn area(rectangle: &Rectangle) -> u32 {
rectangle.length * rectangle.width
}
Here we’ve defined a struct and given it the name Rectangle. Inside the {}
we defined the fields to be length and width, both of which have type
u32. Then in main, we create a particular instance of a Rectangle that
has a length of 50 and a width of 30.
Our area function now takes one argument that we’ve named rectangle whose
type is an immutable borrow of a struct Rectangle instance. As we covered in
Chapter 4, we want to borrow the struct rather than take ownership of it so
that main keeps its ownership and can continue using rect1, so that’s why
we have the & in the function signature and at the call site.
The area function accesses the length and width fields of the Rectangle
instance it got as an argument. Our function signature for area now says
exactly what we mean: calculate the area of a Rectangle, using its length
and width fields. This conveys that the length and width are related to each
other, and gives descriptive names to the values rather than using the tuple
index values of 0 and 1. This is a win for clarity.
Adding Useful Functionality with Derived Traits
It’d be nice to be able to print out an instance of our Rectangle while we’re
debugging our program and see the values for all its fields. Listing 5-5 tries
using the println! macro as we have been:
Filename: src/main.rs
struct Rectangle {
length: u32,
width: u32,
}
fn main() {
let rect1 = Rectangle { length: 50, width: 30 };
println!("rect1 is {}", rect1);
}
If we run this, we get an error with this core message:
error[E0277]: the trait bound `Rectangle: std::fmt::Display` is not satisfied
The println! macro can do many kinds of formatting, and by default, {}
tells println! to use formatting known as Display: output intended for
direct end-user consumption. The primitive types we’ve seen so far implement
Display by default, as there’s only one way you’d want to show a 1 or any
other primitive type to a user. But with structs, the way println! should
format the output is less clear as there are more display possibilities: Do you
want commas or not? Do you want to print the struct {}s? Should all the
fields be shown? Because of this ambiguity, Rust doesn’t try to guess what we
want and structs do not have a provided implementation of Display.
If we keep reading the errors, though, we’ll find this helpful note:
note: `Rectangle` cannot be formatted with the default formatter; try using
`:?` instead if you are using a format string
Let’s try it! The println! will now look like
println!("rect1 is {:?}", rect1);. Putting the specifier :? inside
the {} tells println! we want to use an output format called Debug.
Debug is a trait that enables us to print out our struct in a way that is
useful for developers so that we can see its value while we are debugging our
code.
Let’s try running with this change and… drat. We still get an error:
error: the trait bound `Rectangle: std::fmt::Debug` is not satisfied
Again, though, the compiler has given us a helpful note!
note: `Rectangle` cannot be formatted using `:?`; if it is defined in your
crate, add `#[derive(Debug)]` or manually implement it
Rust does include functionality to print out debugging information, but we
have to explicitly opt-in to having that functionality be available for our
struct. To do that, we add the annotation #[derive(Debug)] just before our
struct definition, as shown in Listing 5-6:
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Rectangle {
length: u32,
width: u32,
}
fn main() {
let rect1 = Rectangle { length: 50, width: 30 };
println!("rect1 is {:?}", rect1);
}
At this point, if we run this program, we won’t get any errors and we’ll see the following output:
rect1 is Rectangle { length: 50, width: 30 }
Nice! It’s not the prettiest output, but it shows the values of all the fields
for this instance, which would definitely help during debugging. If we want
output that is a bit prettier and easier to read, which can be helpful with
larger structs, we can use {:#?} in place of {:?} in the println! string.
If we use the pretty debug style in this example, the output will look like:
rect1 is Rectangle {
length: 50,
width: 30
}
There are a number of traits Rust has provided for us to use with the derive
annotation that can add useful behavior to our custom types. Those traits and
their behaviors are listed in Appendix C. We’ll be covering how to implement
these traits with custom behavior, as well as creating your own traits, in
Chapter 10.
Our area function is pretty specific—it only computes the area of rectangles.
It would be nice to tie this behavior together more closely with our
Rectangle struct, since it’s behavior that our Rectangle type has
specifically. Let’s now look at how we can continue to refactor this code by
turning the area function into an area method defined on our Rectangle
type.
Method Syntax
Methods are similar to functions: they’re declared with the fn keyword and
their name, they can take arguments and return values, and they contain some
code that gets run when they’re called from somewhere else. Methods are
different from functions, however, because they’re defined within the context
of a struct (or an enum or a trait object, which we will cover in Chapters 6
and 13, respectively), and their first argument is always self, which
represents the instance of the struct that the method is being called on.
Defining Methods
Let’s change our area function that takes a Rectangle instance as an
argument and instead make an area method defined on the Rectangle struct,
as shown in Listing 5-7:
Filename: src/main.rs
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Rectangle {
length: u32,
width: u32,
}
impl Rectangle {
fn area(&self) -> u32 {
self.length * self.width
}
}
fn main() {
let rect1 = Rectangle { length: 50, width: 30 };
println!(
"The area of the rectangle is {} square pixels.",
rect1.area()
);
}
In order to make the function be defined within the context of Rectangle, we
start an impl block (impl is short for implementation). Then we move the
function within the impl curly braces, and change the first (and in this
case, only) argument to be self in the signature and everywhere within the
body. Then in main where we called the area function and passed rect1 as
an argument, we can instead use method syntax to call the area method on
our Rectangle instance. Method syntax is taking an instance and adding a dot
followed by the method name, parentheses, and any arguments.
In the signature for area, we get to use &self instead of rectangle: &Rectangle because Rust knows the type of self is Rectangle due to this
method being inside the impl Rectangle context. Note we still need to have
the & before self, just like we had &Rectangle. Methods can choose to
take ownership of self, borrow self immutably as we’ve done here, or borrow
self mutably, just like any other argument.
We’ve chosen &self here for the same reason we used &Rectangle in the
function version: we don’t want to take ownership, and we just want to be able
to read the data in the struct, not write to it. If we wanted to be able to
change the instance that we’ve called the method on as part of what the method
does, we’d put &mut self as the first argument instead. Having a method that
takes ownership of the instance by having just self as the first argument is
rarer; this is usually used when the method transforms self into something
else and we want to prevent the caller from using the original instance after
the transformation.
The main benefit of using methods over functions, in addition to getting to use
method syntax and not having to repeat the type of self in every method’s
signature, is for organization. We’ve put all the things we can do with an
instance of a type together in one impl block, rather than make future users
of our code search for capabilities of Rectangle all over the place.
PROD: START BOX
Where’s the -> Operator?
In languages like C++, there are two different operators for calling methods:
. if you’re calling a method on the object directly, and -> if you’re
calling the method on a pointer to the object and thus need to dereference the
pointer first. In other words, if object is a pointer, object->something()
is like (*object).something().
Rust doesn’t have an equivalent to the -> operator; instead, Rust has a
feature called automatic referencing and dereferencing. Calling methods is
one of the few places in Rust that has behavior like this.
Here’s how it works: when you call a method with object.something(), Rust
will automatically add in &, &mut, or * so that object matches the
signature of the method. In other words, these are the same:
p1.distance(&p2);
(&p1).distance(&p2);
The first one looks much, much cleaner. This automatic referencing behavior
works because methods have a clear receiver — the type of self. Given the
receiver and name of a method, Rust can figure out definitively whether the
method is just reading (so needs &self), mutating (so &mut self), or
consuming (so self). The fact that Rust makes borrowing implicit for method
receivers is a big part of making ownership ergonomic in practice.
PROD: END BOX
Methods with More Arguments
Let’s practice some more with methods by implementing a second method on our
Rectangle struct. This time, we’d like for an instance of Rectangle to take
another instance of Rectangle and return true if the second rectangle could
fit completely within self and false if it would not. That is, if we run
the code in Listing 5-8, once we've defined the can_hold method:
Filename: src/main.rs
fn main() {
let rect1 = Rectangle { length: 50, width: 30 };
let rect2 = Rectangle { length: 40, width: 10 };
let rect3 = Rectangle { length: 45, width: 60 };
println!("Can rect1 hold rect2? {}", rect1.can_hold(&rect2));
println!("Can rect1 hold rect3? {}", rect1.can_hold(&rect3));
}
We want to see this output, since both of rect2’s dimensions are smaller than
rect1’s, but rect3 is wider than rect1:
Can rect1 hold rect2? true
Can rect1 hold rect3? false
We know we want to define a method, so it will be within the impl Rectangle
block. The method name will be can_hold, and it will take an immutable borrow
of another Rectangle as an argument. We can tell what the type of the
argument will be by looking at a call site: rect1.can_hold(&rect2) passes in
&rect2, which is an immutable borrow to rect2, an instance of Rectangle.
This makes sense, since we only need to read rect2 (rather than write, which
would mean we’d need a mutable borrow) and we want main to keep ownership of
rect2 so that we could use it again after calling this method. The return
value of can_hold will be a boolean, and the implementation will check to see
if self’s length and width are both greater than the length and width of the
other Rectangle, respectively. Let’s add this new method to the impl block
from Listing 5-7:
Filename: src/main.rs
impl Rectangle {
fn area(&self) -> u32 {
self.length * self.width
}
fn can_hold(&self, other: &Rectangle) -> bool {
self.length > other.length && self.width > other.width
}
}
If we run this with the main from Listing 5-8, we will get our desired output!
Methods can take multiple arguments that we add to the signature after the
self parameter, and those arguments work just like arguments in functions do.
Associated Functions
One more useful feature of impl blocks: we’re allowed to define functions
within impl blocks that don’t take self as a parameter. These are called
associated functions, since they’re associated with the struct. They’re still
functions though, not methods, since they don’t have an instance of the struct
to work with. You’ve already used an associated function: String::from.
Associated functions are often used for constructors that will return a new
instance of the struct. For example, we could provide an associated function
that would take one dimension argument and use that as both length and width,
thus making it easier to create a square Rectangle rather than having to
specify the same value twice:
Filename: src/main.rs
impl Rectangle {
fn square(size: u32) -> Rectangle {
Rectangle { length: size, width: size }
}
}
To call this associated function, we use the :: syntax with the struct name:
let sq = Rectange::square(3);, for example. This function is namespaced by
the struct: the :: syntax is used for both associated functions and
namespaces created by modules, which we’ll learn about in Chapter 7.
Summary
Structs let us create custom types that are meaningful for our domain. By using structs, we can keep associated pieces of data connected to each other and name each piece to make our code clear. Methods let us specify the behavior that instances of our structs have, and associated functions let us namespace functionality that is particular to our struct without having an instance available.
Structs aren’t the only way we can create custom types, though; let’s turn to
the enum feature of Rust and add another tool to our toolbox.