rust-book-cn/nostarch/chapter03.md

[TOC]

Common Programming Concepts in Rust

Let's look at concepts that appear in almost every programming language and see how they work in Rust. Many programming languages have much in common at their core. None of the concepts presented in this chapter are unique to Rust, but we’ll discuss Rust’s particular syntax and conventions concerning these common concepts.

Specifically, we’ll be talking about variable bindings, basic types, functions, comments, and control flow. These foundations will be in every Rust program, and learning them early will give you a strong core to start from.

PROD: START BOX

Keep in mind as we get into variables and functions that the Rust language has a set of keywords that have been reserved for use by the language only, much like other languages do. This means you cannot use these words as names of variables or functions, for example. Most of these have special meaning and we will be using them to do various things in our Rust programs; a few have no current functionality associated but have been reserved for functionality that might be in the Rust language in the future. You can find a list of the keywords in Appendix XX.

PROD: END BOX

Variable Bindings and Mutability

We mentioned in Chapter XX that by default, variable bindings are immutable. This is one of many nudges that Rust's design has to encourage us to write our code to get the most of the safety and easy concurrency that Rust has to offer. We still have the option to make our bindings mutable, though. Let's explore how and why Rust encourages us to favor immutability, and why we might want to opt out of that.

Variable bindings being immutable means that once a value is bound, you can't change that value. To illustrate this, let's generate a new project with Cargo. Open a terminal, and navigate to the directory you want to store your projects in. From there, run these commands:

$ cargo new --bin bindings
$ cd bindings

Then open src/main.rs and replace its code with the following:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let x = 5;
    println!("The value of x is: {}", x);
    x = 6;
    println!("The value of x is: {}", x);
}

Save and run the program using cargo run, and you should receive an error message, as in this output:

$ cargo run
   Compiling bindings v0.0.1 (file:///projects/bindings)
error: re-assignment of immutable variable `x` [--explain E0384]
 --> src/main.rs:4:5
4 |>     x = 6;
  |>     ^^^^^
note: prior assignment occurs here
 --> src/main.rs:2:9
2 |>     let x = 5;
  |>         ^

This is our first example of the compiler helping us find an error in our program! Compiler errors can be frustrating. Keep in mind that they only mean your program isn't safely doing what you want it to do yet; they do not mean that you're not a good programmer! Experienced Rustaceans still get compiler errors. Try to keep in mind that the Rust compiler is trying to help your program be the very best.

PROD: START BOX ######Extended Error Explanations

Now that you've seen an example of a Rust error, let's look at one particularly useful aspect of errors. Rust encourages you to seek further information on the kind of error you've received with output like this:

error: re-assignment of immutable variable `x` [--explain E0384]

This tells us that if we pass the --explain flag to rustc with the provided error code, we can see an extended explanation which will try to explain common causes of and solutions to that kind of error. Not every error has a longer explanation, but many do. Here’s the explanation for the E0384 error we received:

$ rustc --explain E0384
This error occurs when an attempt is made to reassign an immutable variable.
For example:

```
fn main(){
    let x = 3;
    x = 5; // error, reassignment of immutable variable
}
```

By default, variables in Rust are immutable. To fix this error, add the keyword
`mut` after the keyword `let` when declaring the variable. For example:

```
fn main(){
    let mut x = 3;
    x = 5;
}
```

These explanations can really help if you’re stuck on an error, so don't hesitate to look up the error code. The compiler is your friend, and it's there to help.

PROD: END BOX

The error includes the message re-assigment of immutable variable because the program tried to assign a second value to the x variable.

Getting compile-time errors when your code attempts to change a value that it previously said was immutable is important because this very situation can lead to bugs. If one part of your code operates on an assumption that a value it's operating on will never change, and another part of your code changes that value, it's possible that the first code won't do what it was designed to do. Especially when the second piece of code only changes the value sometimes, this cause of bugs can be difficult to track down after the fact.

In Rust, our code can know that a value our code assumes won't change really won't change, because the compiler is enforcing that guarantee for us. When reading and writing code, we don't have to keep track in our head how and where a value might change. This can make code easier to reason about.

Mutability is really useful, though! Bindings are immutable only by default; you can make them mutable by adding mut in front of the variable name. In addition to telling the compiler it should allow this value to be changed, it conveys intent to future readers of the code and says that other parts of the code will be changing this value.

For example, change the program you just wrote to the following:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let mut x = 5;
    println!("The value of x is: {}", x);
    x = 6;
    println!("The value of x is: {}", x);
}

Running this, we get:

$ cargo run
   Compiling bindings v0.1.0 (file:///projects/bindings)
     Running `target/debug/bindings`
The value of x is: 5
The value of x is: 6

Using mut, we are allowed to change the value that x binds to from 5 to 6. You might want to make a binding mutable because it makes the code easier to understand than an implementation that only uses immutable bindings. In cases where you're using large data structures, mutating an instance in place may be faster than copying and returning newly allocated instances. It all depends on the tradeoffs you want to make in your situation.

Shadowing

As we saw in the guessing game tutorial, we can declare new bindings with the same name as a previous binding, and the new binding shadows the previous binding. We say that the first binding is shadowed by the second, which means that the second binding's value is what you will see when you use the variable after the second binding. This can be useful if you’d like to perform a few transformations on a value, but have the binding be immutable after those transformations have been completed. For example:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let x = 5;

    let x = x + 1;

    let x = x * 2;

    println!("The value of x is: {}", x);
}

This program first binds x to a value of 5. Then, it shadows x by saying let x = again, taking the original value and adding 1 so that the value of x is then 6. The third let statement also shadows x, taking the previous value and multiplying it by 2 to give x a final value of 12. If you run this, it will output:

$ cargo run
   Compiling bindings v0.1.0 (file:///projects/bindings)
     Running `target/debug/bindings`
The value of x is: 12

Shadowing is useful because it lets us modify x without having to make the binding mutable. This means the compiler will still keep us from accidentally trying to mutate x directly later.

Now let's look at some of the types of values that we can bind variables to.

Data Types

Every value in Rust is of a certain type, which tells Rust what kind of data is being given so it knows how to work with that data. In this section, we'll look at a number of types built into the language itself split into two subsets of Rust data types: scalar and compound.

Something to keep in mind throughout this section: Rust is a statically typed language, which means that it must know the types of all bindings at compile time. The compiler can usually infer what type we want to use based on the value and how we use it. When many types are possible, such as when we converted a String to a numeric type using parse() in the guessing game tutorial, we can add a type annotation, like this:

let x: i32 = 5;

You will see some type annotations as we discuss the various data types.

Scalar Types

A scalar type is one that represents a single value. There are four key scalar types in Rust: integers, floating point numbers, booleans, and characters. You'll likely recognize these from other programming languages, but let's jump into how they work in Rust.

Integer Types

An integer is a number without a fractional component. We've used one integer type already in this chapter, the i32 type. This type declaration indicates that the value it's associated with should be a signed integer (hence the i, as opposed to a u for unsigned) for a 32-bit system. There are a number of built-in integer types in Rust, shown in Table 3-1.

Length	signed	unsigned
8-bit	i8	u8
16-bit	i16	u16
32-bit	i32	u32
64-bit	i64	u64
arch	isize	usize

Table 4-1: Integer types in Rust. Each code (for example, i32) can be used to declare the type of a value.

Each variant can be either signed or unsigned and has an explicit size. Signed and unsigned merely refers to whether it is possible for the number to be either negative or positive, meaning the number needs to have a sign with it ("signed"), or whether it will only ever be positive and can therefore be represented without a sign ("unsigned"). It's like writing numbers on paper: when the sign matters, a number is shown with a plus sign or minus sign, but when it's safe to assume the number is positive, it's shown with no sign. Signed numbers are stored using two’s complement representation (if you're unsure what this is you can search for it online; an explanation is outside the scope of this text).

Finally, the isize and usize types depend on the kind of computer your program is running on: 64-bits if you're on a 64-bit architecture, and 32-bits if you’re on a 32-bit architecture.

So how do you know which type of integer to use? If you're unsure, Rust's defaults are generally good choices, and integer types default to i32: it’s generally the fastest, even on 64-bit systems. The primary situation in which you'd need to specify isize or usize is when indexing some sort of collection, which we'll talk about in the "Arrays" section.

Floating-Point Types

Rust also has two primitive types for floating-point numbers, which are numbers with decimal points. Rust's floating-point types are f32 and f64, which are 32 bits and 64 bits in size, respectively. The default type is f64, as it’s roughly the same speed as f32, but has a larger precision. It is possible to use an f64 on 32 bit systems, but it will be slower than using an f32 on those systems. Most of the time, trading potential worse performance for better precision is a reasonable initial choice, and you should benchmark your code if you suspect floating-point size is a problem in your case.

Here's an example showing floating-point numbers in action:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let x = 2.0; // f64

    let y: f32 = 3.0; // f32
}

Floating-point numbers are represented according to the IEEE-754 standard. The f32 type is a single-precision float, while f64 has double-precision.

Numeric Operations

Rust supports the usual basic mathematic operations you’d expect for all of these number types: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and modulo. This code shows how you'd use each one in a let statement:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    // addition
    let sum = 5 + 10;

    // subtraction
    let difference = 95.5 - 4.3;

    // multiplication
    let product = 4 * 30;

    // division
    let quotient = 56.7 / 32.2;

    // modulo
    let remainder = 43 % 5;
}

Each expression in these statements uses a mathematical operator and evaluates to a single value, which is then bound to a variable.

The Boolean Type

As in most other programming languages, a boolean type in Rust has two possible values: true and false. The boolean type in Rust is specified with bool. For example:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let t = true;

    let f: bool = false; // with explicit type annotation
}

The main way to consume boolean values is through conditionals like an if statement. We’ll cover how if statements work in Rust in the "Control Flow" section of this chapter.

The Character Type

So far we’ve only worked with numbers, but Rust supports letters too. Rust’s char type is the language's most primitive alphabetic type, and this code shows one way to use it:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
   let c = 'z';
   let z = 'ℤ';
   let heart_eyed_cat = '😻';
}

Rust’s char represents a Unicode Scalar Value, which means that it can represent a lot more than just ASCII. Accented letters, Chinese/Japanese/Korean ideographs, emoji, and zero width spaces are all valid chars in Rust. Unicode Scalar Values range from U+0000 to U+D7FF and U+E000 to U+10FFFF inclusive. A "character" isn’t really a concept in Unicode, however, so your human intuition for what a "character" is may not match up with what a char is in Rust. It also means that chars are four bytes each. You can learn more about Unicode Scalar Values at http://www.unicode.org/glossary/#unicode_scalar_value and find a chart for all unicode code points at http://www.unicode.org/charts/.

The Byte Type

You can work with the bytes of data directly. Byte literals can be created from the ASCII characters using b and single quotes:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let byte = b'a';
    println!("byte is {}", byte);
}

This will print byte is 97. Similarly, byte string literals can be created using b and double quotes, like b"some byte string". Note that since you are limited to ASCII characters, it's a best practice to use characters instead of bytes when you're working with natural language text.

Compound Types

Compound types can group multiple values of other types into one type. Rust has two primitive compound types: tuples and arrays.

Grouping Values into Tuples

We’ve seen tuples already, when binding multiple values at once. A tuple is a general way of grouping together some number of other values with distinct types into one compound type.

We create a tuple by writing a comma-separated list of values inside parentheses. Each position in the tuple has a distinct type, as in this example:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let tup: (i32, f64, u8) = (500, 6.4, 1);
}

Note that, unlike the examples of multiple bindings, here we bind the single name tup to the entire tuple, emphasizing the fact that a tuple is considered a single compound element. We could then use pattern matching to destructure this tuple value, like this:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let tup: (i32, f64, u8) = (500, 6.4, 1);

    let (x, y, z) = tup;

    println!("The value of y is: {}", y);
}

In this program, we first create a tuple and bind it to the name tup. We then use a pattern with let to take tup and turn it into three separate bindings, x, y, and z. This is called destructuring, because it breaks the single tuple into three parts.

Finally, we print the value of y, which is 6.4.

Tuple Indexing

In addition to destructuring through pattern matching, we can also access a tuple element directly by using a period (.) followed by the index of the value we want to access. For example:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let x: (i32, f64, u8) = (500, 6.4, 1);

    let five_hundred = x.0;

    let six_point_four = x.1;

    let one = x.2;
}

This program creates a tuple, x, and then makes new bindings to each element by using their index. As with most programming languages, the first index in a tuple is 0.

Arrays

Another way to bind a name to a collection of multiple values is with an array. Unlike a tuple, every element of an array must have the same type. Arrays in Rust are different than arrays in some other languages because arrays in Rust have a fixed length-- once declared, they cannot grow or shrink in size.

In Rust, the values going into an array are written as a comma separated list inside square brackets:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
}

While arrays can be useful since they are a primitive type, they aren't as flexible as the Vec (short for "vector"), a similar collection type provided by the standard library that is allowed to grow or shrink in size. If you're unsure whether to use an array or a Vec, you should probably go with a Vec, and we'll discuss them in more detail in chapter XX.

Accessing Array Elements

An array is a single chunk of memory, allocated on the stack. We can access elements of an array using indexing, like this:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];

    let first = a[0];
    let second = a[1];
}

In this example, the first variable will bind to 1 at index [0] in the array, and second will bind to 2 at index [1] in the array. Note that these values are copied out of the array and into first and second when the let statement is called. That means if the array changes after the let statements, these bindings will not, and the two variables should retain their values.

Invalid array element access

What happens if you try to access an element of an array past the end of the array? Say we changed our program to:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];

    let element = a[10];

    println!("The value of element is: {}", element);
}

Running this code with cargo run produces:

$ cargo run
   Compiling arrays v0.1.0 (file:///projects/arrays)
     Running `target/debug/arrays`
thread '<main>' panicked at 'index out of bounds: the len is 5 but the index is 10', src/main.rs:4
note: Run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` for a backtrace.
error: Process didn't exit successfully: `target/debug/arrays` (exit code: 101)

We can see that compiling did not give us any errors, but we got a runtime error and our program didn't exit successfully. When we attempt to access an element using indexing, Rust will check that the index we've specified is less than the array length. If the index is greater than the length, it will "panic", which is what it's called when a Rust program exits with an error.

This is our first example of Rust’s safety principles in action. In many low-level languages, this kind of check is not done, and when you provide an incorrect index, invalid memory can be accessed. Rust protects us against this kind of error by immediately exiting instead of allowing the memory access and continuing. We'll discuss more of Rust’s error handling in Chapter XX.

How Functions Work

Functions are pervasive in Rust code. We’ve already seen one of the most important functions in the language: the main() function that’s the entry point of many programs. We've also seen the fn keyword, which allows us to declare new functions.

Rust code uses snake case as the conventional style for function names. In snake case, all letters are lower case, and there are underscores separating words. (Rust also uses snake case for the names of variable bindings; we just haven't used any variable bindings with enough letters to need underscores yet). Here's a program containing an example function definition:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    println!("Hello, world!");

    another_function();
}

fn another_function() {
    println!("Another function.");
}

Function definitions in Rust start with fn and have a set of parentheses after the function name. The curly braces tell the compiler where the function body begins and ends.

We can call any function we’ve defined by entering its name followed by a pair of parentheses. Since another_function() is defined in the program, it can be called from inside the main() function. Note that we defined another_function() after the main() function in our source code; we could have defined it before as well. Rust doesn’t care where you define your functions, only that they are defined somewhere.

Let’s start a new project to explore functions further. Open a terminal, and navigate to the directory you're keeping your projects in. From there, use Cargo to generate a new project, as follows:

$ cargo new --bin functions
$ cd functions

Place the another_function() example in a file named src/main.rs and run it. You should see the following output:

$ cargo run
   Compiling functions v0.1.0 (file:///projects/functions)
     Running `target/debug/functions`
Hello, world!
Another function.

The lines execute in the order they appear in the main() function. First, our “Hello, world!” message prints, and then another_function() is called and its message is printed.

Function Arguments

Functions can also take arguments. The following rewritten version of another_function() shows what arguments look like in Rust:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    another_function(5);
}

fn another_function(x: i32) {
    println!("The value of x is: {}", x);
}

Try running this program, and you should get this output:

$ cargo run
   Compiling functions v0.1.0 (file:///projects/functions)
     Running `target/debug/functions`
The value of x is: 5

Since we passed 5 to another_function(), the println! macro put 5 where the pair of curly braces were in the format string. The declaration of another_function() shows that it takes one argument named x, and the type of x is i32.

In function signatures, we must declare the type. This is a deliberate decision in the design of Rust; requiring type annotations in function definitions means the compiler almost never needs you to use them elsewhere in the code in order to figure out what you mean.

When you want a function to have multiple arguments, just separate them inside the function signature with commas, like this:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    another_function(5, 6);
}

fn another_function(x: i32, y: i32) {
    println!("The value of x is: {}", x);
    println!("The value of y is: {}", y);
}

In this example, we make a function with two arguments, both of which are i32s. If your function has multiple arguments, they don’t need to be the same type, but they just happen to be in this example. Our function then prints out the values of both of its arguments.

Let’s try out this code. Replace the program currently in your function project's main.rs file with the example above, and run it as follows:

$ cargo run
   Compiling functions v0.1.0 (file:///projects/functions)
     Running `target/debug/functions`
The value of x is: 5
The value of y is: 6

Since 5 is passed as the x argument and 6 is passed as the y argument, the two strings are printed with these values.

Function Bodies

Function bodies are made up of a series of statements ending in an optional expression. So far, we've only seen functions without an ending expression, but we have seen expressions as parts of statements. Since Rust is an expression-based language, this is an important distinction to understand. Other languages don't have the same distinctions, so let's look at what statements and expressions are and how their differences affect the bodies of functions.

Statements and Expressions

We've already been using both statements and expressions. Statements are instructions that perform some action and do not return a value. Expressions evaluate to a resulting value. Let's look at some examples.

Let bindings are statements. They instruct the program to create a binding name and assign a value to it. let y = 6; in this example is a statement:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let y = 6;
}

Function definitions are also statements-- so the entire previous example is a statement as well.

Statements do not return values themselves. Therefore, you can’t assign a let binding to another binding, as this code tries to do:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let x = (let y = 6);
}

If we were to run this program, we’d get an error like this:

$ cargo run
   Compiling functions v0.1.0 (file:///projects/functions)
error: expected expression, found statement (`let`)
 --> src/main.rs:2:14
2 |>     let x = (let y = 6);
  |>              ^^^
note: variable declaration using `let` is a statement

error: aborting due to previous error
error: Could not compile `functions`.

The let y = 6 statement does not return a value, so there isn't anything for x to bind to. This is different than in other languages like C and Ruby where the assignment returns the value of the assignment. In those languages, you could write x = y = 6 and have both x and y have the value 6, but that is not the case in Rust.

Expressions are most of the rest of the code that you will write in Rust. Consider a simple math operation, like this:

5 + 6

This is an expression, and evaluating it results in the value 11. Expressions can be part of statements-- in the previous example that had the statement let y = 6;, 6 is an expression that evaluates to the value 6. Calling a function is an expression. Calling a macro is an expression. The block that we use to create new scopes, {}, is an expression, for example:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let x = 5;

    let y = {
        let x = 3;
        x + 1
    };

    println!("The value of y is: {}", y);
}

The expression:

{
    let x = 3;
    x + 1
}

is a block that, in this case, gets evaluated to 4, which then gets bound to y as part of the let statement.

Note that the line containing x + 1 does not have a semicolon at the end like most of the lines we've seen up until now have had. This is the most important distinction between expressions and statements to remember: statements end in semicolons while expressions do not. If you add a semicolon to the end of an expression, that will turn it into a statement, which will then not return a value. Keep this in mind as we explore function return values and expressions.

Functions with Return Values

Functions can return values back to the code that calls them. We don’t name return values, but we do declare their type, after an arrow (->). In Rust, the "return value of the function” is synonymous with “the value of the final expression in the block of the body of a function.” Here's an example of a function that returns a value:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn five() -> i32 {
    5
}

fn main() {
    let x = five();

    println!("The value of x is: {}", x);
}

There are no function calls, macros, or even let statements in the five() function-- just the number 5 by itself. That's a perfectly valid function in Rust. Note the function's return type, too. Try running this code, and the output should look like this:

$ cargo run
   Compiling functions v0.1.0 (file:///projects/functions)
     Running `target/debug/functions`
The value of x is: 5

The 5 in five() is actually the function's return value, which is why the return type is i32. Let’s examine this in more detail. There are two important bits. First, the line let x = five(); in main() shows that we can use the return value of a function to initialize a binding.

Because the function five() returns a 5, that line is the same as saying:

let x = 5;

The second interesting bit is the five() function itself. It requires no arguments and defines the type of the return value, but the body of the function is a lonely 5 with no semicolon because it is an expression whose value we want to return. Let's look at another example:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let x = plus_one(5);

    println!("The value of x is: {}", x);
}

fn plus_one(x: i32) -> i32 {
    x + 1
}

Running this code will print The value of x is: 6. What happens if we put a semicolon at the end of the line containing x + 1, changing it from an expression to a statement?

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let x = plus_one(5);

    println!("The value of x is: {}", x);
}

fn plus_one(x: i32) -> i32 {
    x + 1;
}

Running this code gives an error, as follows:

$ cargo run
   Compiling functions v0.1.0 (file:///projects/functions)
error: not all control paths return a value [--explain E0269]
 --> src/main.rs:7:1
7 |> fn plus_one(x: i32) -> i32 {
  |> ^
help: consider removing this semicolon:
 --> src/main.rs:8:10
8 |>     x + 1;
  |>          ^

error: aborting due to previous error
error: Could not compile `functions`.

The main error message, "not all control paths return a value", reveals the core of the issue with this code. The definition of the function plus_one says that it will return an i32, but statements don’t evaluate to a value. Therefore, nothing is returned, which contradicts the function definition and results in an error. In this output, Rust gives an option to rectify this: it suggests removing the semicolon, which would fix the error.

Comments

All programmers strive to make their code easy to understand, but sometimes extra explanation is warranted. In these cases, we leave notes in our source code that the compiler will ignore but people reading the source code may find useful. These notes are called comments.

Here’s a simple comment:

// Hello, world.

In Rust, comments must start with two slashes and will last until the end of the line. For comments that extend beyond a single line, you'll need to include // on each line, like this:

// So we’re doing something complicated here, long enough that we need
// multiple lines of comments to do it! Whew! Hopefully, this comment will
// explain what’s going on.

Comments can also be placed at the end of lines of code:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let lucky_number = 7; // I’m feeling lucky today.
}

But you’ll more often see them above, like so:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    // I’m feeling lucky today.
    let lucky_number = 7;
}

That’s all there is to it. Comments are not particularly complicated.

Control Flow

Deciding whether or not to run some code depending on if a condition is true, or deciding to run some code repeatedly while a condition is true, are basic building blocks in most programming languages. The most common constructs that let us control the flow of execution of our Rust code are if expressions and loops.

if Expressions

An if expression allows us to branch our code depending on conditions. We provide a condition and then say, "If this condition is met, then run this block of code. If the condition is not met, do not run this block of code."

Let’s make a new project to explore if. Navigate to your projects directory, and use Cargo to make a new project called branches:

$ cargo new --bin branches
$ cd branches

Write this sample program using if and save it in the branches directory in src/main.rs:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let number = 3;

    if number < 5 {
        println!("condition was true");
    } else {
        println!("condition was false");
    }
}

All if expressions start with if, which is followed by a condition. In this case, our condition is checking if our variable binding number has a value that is less than 5. The block of code we want to execute if the condition is true goes immediately after the condition, inside curly braces. These blocks are sometimes called arms. We can optionally also include an else statement, which we have chosen to do here. else gives the program a block of code to execute should condition evaluate to false.

Try running this code, and you should see output like this:

$ cargo run
   Compiling branches v0.1.0 (file:///projects/branches)
     Running `target/debug/branches`
condition was true

Let’s try changing the value of number to a value that makes the condition false to see what happens:

let number = 7;

Run the program again, and look at the output:

$ cargo run
   Compiling branches v0.1.0 (file:///projects/branches)
     Running `target/debug/branches`
condition was false

It’s also worth noting that condition here must be a bool. To see what happens if the condition isn't a bool, try running this code:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let number = 3;

    if number {
        println!("number was three");
    }
}

The if condition evaluates to a value of 3 this time, and Rust will complain about it:

   Compiling branches v0.1.0 (file:///projects/branches)
error: mismatched types [--explain E0308]
 --> src/main.rs:4:8
4 |>     if number {
  |>        ^^^^^^ expected bool, found integral variable
note: expected type `bool`
note:    found type `_`

error: aborting due to previous error
Could not compile `branches`.

The error tells us that Rust expected a bool, but got an integer. Rust will not automatically try to convert non-boolean types to a boolean here, unlike languages like Ruby or JavaScript. We must be explicit and always give if a boolean as its condition. If your intention is for the if code block to be run if a number is not equal to 0, for example, we would change the if expression to read:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let number = 3;

    if number != 0 {
        println!("number was something other than zero");
    }
}

Running this will print "number was something other than zero".

Multiple Conditions with else if

We can have multiple coniditions by combining if and else in an else if expression. For example:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let number = 5;

    if number == 3 {
        println!("condition was 3");
    } else if number == 4 {
        println!("condition was 4");
    } else if number == 5 {
        println!("condition was 5");
    } else {
        println!("condition was something else");
    }
}

This program has four possible paths it can take. If you try running it, you should see output like this:

$ cargo run
   Compiling branches v0.1.0 (file:///projects/branches)
     Running `target/debug/branches`
condition was 5

When this program executes, it will check each if expression in turn and execute the first body for which the condition holds true.

Using too many else if expressions can clutter your code, so if you find yourself with more than one, you may want to look at refactoring your code. In Chapter XX, we'll talk about a powerful Rust branching construct called match for these cases.

Using if in a Binding

The last detail you need to learn about if is that it’s an expression. That means that we can use it on the right hand side of a let binding, for instance:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let condition = true;
    let number = if condition {
        5
    } else {
        6
    };

    println!("The value of number is: {}", number);
}

The number variable will be bound to a value based on the outcome of the if expression. Let’s run this to see what happens:

$ cargo run
   Compiling branches v0.1.0 (file:///projects/branches)
     Running `target/debug/branches`
The value of number is: 5

Remember, blocks of code evaluate to the last expression in them, and numbers by themselves are also expressions. In this case, the value of the whole if expression depends on which block of code executes. This means that the value that results from both arms of the if must be the same type; in the previous example, they were both i32 integers. But what happens if the types are mismatched, as in the following example?

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let condition = true;

    let number = if condition {
        5
    } else {
        "six"
    };

    println!("The value of number is: {}", number);
}

The expression in the if block is an integer and the expresion in the else block is a string. This can’t work, because variable bindings must have a single type. If we try to run this, we’ll get an error:

   Compiling branches v0.1.0 (file:///projects/branches)
src/main.rs:4:18: 8:6 error: if and else have incompatible types:
 expected `_`,
    found `&'static str`
(expected integral variable,
    found &-ptr) [E0308]
src/main.rs:4     let number = if condition {
src/main.rs:5         5
src/main.rs:6     } else {
src/main.rs:7         "six"
src/main.rs:8     };
src/main.rs:4:18: 8:6 help: run `rustc --explain E0308` to see a detailed explanation
error: aborting due to previous error
Could not compile `branches`.

The if and else arms have value types that are incompatible, and Rust tells us exactly where to find the problem in our program.

Repetition with Loops

It’s often useful to be able to execute a block of code more than one time. For this, Rust has several constructs called loops. A loop runs through the code inside it to the end and then starts immediately back at the beginning. To try out loops, let’s make a new project. Navigate to your projects folder and use Cargo to make a new project:

$ cargo new --bin loops
$ cd loops

There are three kinds of loops in Rust: loop, while, and for. Let’s dig in.

Repeating Code with loop

The loop keyword tells Rust to execute a block of code over and over again forever or until we explicitly tell it to stop.

For an example, change the src/main.rs file in your loops directory to look like this:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    loop {
        println!("again!");
    }
}

If we run this program, we’ll see again! printed over and over continuously until we stop the program manually. Most terminals support a keyboard shortcut, control-c, to halt a program stuck in a continual loop. Give it a try:

$ cargo run
   Compiling loops v0.1.0 (file:///projects/loops)
     Running `target/debug/loops`
again!
again!
again!
again!
^Cagain!

That ^C there is where we hit control-c. You may or may not see "again!" printed after the ^C, depending on where the code was in the loop when it received the signal to halt.

Fortunately, Rust provides another, more reliable way to break out of a loop. We can place the break keyword within the loop to tell the program when to stop executing the loop. Recall that we did this in the guessing game to exit the program when the user won the game by guessing the number correctly.

Conditional Loops With while

A useful thing that many programs do is have a condition that can be evaluated within a loop. While the condition is true, the loop runs. When the condition ceases to be true, we call break, stopping the loop. This could be implemented with a combination of loop, if, else, and break; try to do that now if you'd like!

But this pattern is so common that Rust has a more efficient language construct for it, called a while loop. Here's an example using while: this program loops three times, counting down each time. Finally, after the loop, it prints another message, then exits:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let mut number = 3;

    while number != 0  {
        println!("{}!", number);

        number = number - 1;
    }

    println!("LIFTOFF!!!");
}

This gets rid of a lot of nesting that would be necessary if we used loop, if, else, and break, and it's more clear. While a condition holds, run this code; otherwise, exit the loop.

Looping Through a Collection with for

We could use this while construct to loop over the elements of a collection, like an array. For example:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let a = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50];
    let mut index = 0;

    while index < 5 {
        println!("the value is: {}", a[index]);

        index = index + 1;
    }
}

Here, we're counting up through the elements in the array. We start at index 0, then loop until we hit the final index of our array (that is, when index < 5 is no longer true). Running this will print out every element of the array:

$ cargo run
   Compiling loops v0.1.0 (file:///projects/loops)
     Running `target/debug/loops`
the value is: 10
the value is: 20
the value is: 30
the value is: 40
the value is: 50

All five array values appear in the terminal, as expected. Even though index will reach a value of 6 at some point, the loop stops executing before trying to fetch a sixth value from the array.

This approach is error-prone, though; we could cause our program to panic by getting the index length incorrect. It's also slow, as the compiler needs to perform the conditional check on every element on every iteration through the loop.

As a more efficient alternative, we can use a for loop and execute some code for each item in a collection. A for loop looks like this:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let a = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50];

    for element in a.iter() {
        println!("the value is: {}", element);
    }
}

If we run this, we'll see the same output as the previous example. Importantly, though, we've now increased the safety of our code and eliminated the chance of bugs resulting from going beyond the end of the array or not going far enough and missing some items.

For example, in the previous code that uses the while loop, if we removed an item from the a array but forgot to update the condition to be while index < 4, our code would panic. Using the for loop means we would not need to remember to change any other code if we changed the number of values in the array.

If you're wondering about the .iter() code in this example, keep reading! We will cover method syntax generally in Chapter XX and iterators specifically in Chapter XX.

The safety and conciseness of for loops make them the most commonly used loop construct in Rust. Even in situations where you want to run some code a certain number of times, like our countdown example that used a while loop, most Rustaceans would use a for loop. The way to do that is using a Range, which is a type provided by the standard library that generates numbers starting from one number and ending before another number. Here's what the countdown would look like with a for loop, and using another method we haven't yet talked about, .rev(), to reverse the range:

Filename: src/main.rs

fn main() {
    for number in (1..4).rev() {
        println!("{}!", number);
    }
    println!("LIFTOFF!!!");
}

That's a bit nicer, isn't it?

Now that you know how Rust does things that most other languages can do, let's talk about a concept that doesn't commonly exist: ownership.